Abstract
This thematic literature review explores the concept of design friction as an alternative approach to designing digital interfaces. In contrast to dominant human-centered design, which prioritizes seamlessness and the removal of obstacles, the deliberate introduction of friction offers a tool for supporting more mindful use of technology. The paper analyzes five relevant research studies from 2019–2025 that examine the effect of friction on user satisfaction, the categorization of frictions, the reduction of mindless scrolling, habit formation, and cognitive dissociation on social media. The analysis reveals that, despite fragmented conceptual frameworks, friction shows promise in supporting users’ self-reflection and autonomy. The results show that users do not necessarily see friction as synonymous with negativity; in practice, however, deliberately implementing it is more complicated than it seems. The key open question is how to design internal friction so that it strengthens user autonomy without crossing the threshold of tolerable frustration.
Keywords
friction, friction design, user experience, mindless interaction, self-reflection, autonomy, habit formation
Introduction to Friction
In recent decades, human-centred design has become a cornerstone of how digital products are made. The aim is to make using them as fast and seamless as possible for the user: every interaction is optimized, every obstacle removed. The goal is to connect technology with everyday life so that moving between the two requires no cognitive effort, which means any friction should be eliminated when designing digital interfaces. The problem with this approach, however, is that it can lead to mindless interaction, where users act without being aware of the consequences of their actions.
Friction design represents a critical or speculative stance towards the dominant paradigms of the human-centered perspective, which equates “good design” with convenience and efficiency. The aim of this approach is not to create lasting discomfort that would discourage people from using technology. On the contrary, it builds on the idea that many activities that make us uncomfortable or force us to slow down are nevertheless valuable, especially when they draw attention to important but uncomfortable questions we would otherwise naturally avoid.
In recent years, a number of design approaches have emerged around the concept of friction and related terms: slow technology, slow design, reflective design, critical design, value sensitive design, and others. In an attempt to unify these diverse approaches, a division into two categories was proposed: diegetic and extra-diegetic frictions. While the former operate directly within platforms, in the form of slowed-down interactions or interrupted flow, the latter operate outside everyday technologies and challenge our beliefs through art projects. Despite this attempt at systematization, however, the field of friction in design remains fragmented, and many questions, from the suitability of context to regulating the intensity of friction, remain open.
Situating the Topic within ISK
The deliberate introduction of friction into digital solutions is closely connected to the field of Information Studies and Librarianship, as it builds on topics such as human-centred design and a critical approach to designing digital interfaces.
In the course ISKM02 Design of Information Services, Interfaces and Interactions with Dr. Sellner Novotný, we explored critiques of the human-centred approach in connection with speculative and critical design. These approaches try to overcome a crisis of creativity and look for alternative ways of designing digital solutions. Deliberately designing friction can be one of these alternative approaches.
Problem Statement
For some time I have been asking myself whether, in certain contexts, a return to HTML-only websites could represent a shift towards interfaces whose primary focus is data. This impression was strengthened by the performance Emoticons Don’t Have Wrinkles by the artist Luna Maurer, based on the Designing Friction manifesto. With her face painted yellow, she creates a metaphor in which the emoticon stands for smooth, comfortable digital communication that in reality reduces the complexity of human interaction. In this way she challenges the idea that removing every obstacle automatically leads to a better user experience.
The literature search on friction in the digital space that followed shows that research in this area is steadily growing, and research groups are forming with the aim of producing recommendations and answering many currently open questions.
I see friction as a tool for regaining control over how we use digital technologies. I am primarily interested in the internal application of friction: solutions that are not built on externally imposed restrictions but instead support more conscious decision-making by users themselves. The key question for me is: How can internal friction be designed so that it strengthens user autonomy and self-reflection? I am aware that a certain amount of frustration is an inevitable part of friction; the question, however, is where the threshold of tolerability lies, that is, the point up to which frustration does not grow to a level that would lead users to abandon the app.
Literature Overview
The selected studies map different ways of approaching the design and testing of friction in practice: from basic research into its effect on satisfaction, through a typology of different kinds of friction and specific applications on social media, to research on users’ long-term adaptation.
Design Friction
This 2019 study examined how deliberately adding friction affects user satisfaction with the Headspace mobile app. Using a mixed methodology combining user testing and a questionnaire, it involved 15 technically oriented university students aged 20–30. The findings indicate that deliberately added friction makes interaction with the app easier to understand. This increased level of understanding in turn contributes to higher satisfaction when using the app.
Are All Design Frictions Equal? Exploring Types of Frictions and their Perceived Value for Digital Wellbeing
In 2025, a qualitative study was carried out to identify different types of friction and their perceived value for digital wellbeing. Through a moderated group workshop, it involved 19 tech-savvy participants, university students and teachers with an average age of 25. The analysis revealed that perceptions of cognitive, emotional, motivational, social and physical friction differ between users depending on their personal goals. A key finding is that respondents’ preferences are strongly influenced by the specific app they intend to use, which underlines the importance of a sensitive approach when designing frictions to support digital wellbeing.
Design Frictions on Social Media: Balancing Reduced Mindless Scrolling and User Satisfaction
Mindless content browsing on social media and user satisfaction were the subject of a study conducted in 2024. Using a mixed methodology with user testing and questionnaires, it involved 30 university students aged 21 to 31. Comparing a reaction-based interface with a conventional infinite-scroll interface produced interesting findings: the former significantly improved users’ attention and their ability to recall the content they had seen. Despite these cognitive benefits, however, the reaction-based interface caused feelings of frustration in some respondents. The results thus point to the fine line between eliminating mindless scrolling and maintaining a positive user experience.
Quantifying the impact of making and breaking interface habits
Quantifying the impact of forming and breaking habits in a digital interface was the main aim of a 2020 study. The study, based on user testing, involved 19 university students with an average age of 24. The findings showed that users are able to form habits when interacting with an interface not only under controlled laboratory conditions but also in real-world settings. The habits they acquire have a positive effect on the speed and accuracy of completing tasks, while disrupting them leads to worse performance. The study also found that reaction times are an effective tool for distinguishing users who form habits from those who do not.
”I Don’t Even Remember What I Read”: How Design Influences Dissociation on Social Media
The phenomenon of complete cognitive absorption, characterized by reduced self-awareness and reduced control over one’s own actions, was the focus of a 2022 study. A mixed methodology including user testing, in-depth interviews and questionnaires made it possible to analyze the experiences of 51 English-speaking Americans who use Twitter for at least 10 minutes a day. The data confirmed that both internal and external design interventions in the interface can reduce normative dissociation while also strengthening users’ self-reflection.
Synthesis
What problems do I see through the academic literature?
Despite efforts to clearly define design friction, researchers’ individual approaches often diverge. This does not necessarily have to be a problem: it can be seen as an early experimental phase in which it is not yet possible to work more systematically. The diversity of approaches may reflect the search for an optimal conceptual framework for a relatively young field of research.
How do the selected studies reflect this field?
This lack of systematisation is also evident in the selected studies, not in the sense that they grasp the topic incorrectly, but rather in that each study works with a different conceptual framework of friction. While one study divides friction into five categories (cognitive, emotional, motivational, social, physical), another applies no explicit division at all. This is not necessarily problematic per se, but it makes it harder to systematically grasp and compare findings across studies.
Which research questions are addressed?
Four of the five selected studies work with comparative research questions, where researchers want to know whether introducing friction increases or decreases user satisfaction or users’ control over their own actions. One of the studies focuses on quantifying the process of habit formation, which I consider particularly important in the context of designing and experimenting with friction in user interfaces. This perspective highlights another dimension that needs to be taken into account: users’ ability to adapt to changes in the interface, which could potentially neutralize the original effect of the implemented friction.
Which methodologies and data collection methods are used?
Research on design friction often uses a combination of qualitative and quantitative methodology. This mixed approach makes it possible to capture not only measurable changes in user behavior (reaction times, task accuracy) but also the subjective perception of friction, preferences and frustrations. The most common data collection methods are user testing combined with questionnaires, with some studies also including in-depth interviews or moderated workshops.
Do I see potential for my own work, and if so, in which specific area?
The results of the analysed studies show that users really do not necessarily see friction as synonymous with negativity or malfunction, which is an encouraging finding. At the same time, however, deliberately implementing friction appears to be much more complicated in practice than it seems at first glance. As for future research on friction, I see potential in several areas:
Demographic diversity of the sample Most of the studies worked with university-educated respondents, often aged 20 to 30. This choice is understandable: researchers tended to work with people who notice even small, subtle changes in digital interfaces. To some extent, however, this decision seems limiting. It raises the question of whether it is precisely people who were not born into the digital world who have more trouble navigating current technologies, and for whom design friction could be more relevant.
Working with hypertext interfaces In connection with the study Agency Among Agents, it makes sense to look at friction not as an obstacle that needs to be added, but to ask instead: what can be taken away? Across the studies, friction often takes the form of an obstacle, whether a logic puzzle the user has to solve, a curated list they have to build themselves, or a statistic showing the time spent in the app. That is exactly why I find it appealing to approach friction from a different angle. The hypertext approach seems an interesting way to do so: it naturally encourages user curiosity, is inherently slower than precomputed posts and infinite scroll, and at the same time offers more room for autonomous decision-making.
Long-term effects of design friction Most existing studies examine the short-term effects of friction, while the study on habits suggests that users can form new patterns of behavior fairly quickly. This leaves open the question of how the perception and effectiveness of design friction change over time, and whether users can form habits around friction-based interfaces too, thereby neutralizing their original effect. This area offers significant potential for future research with practical implications for the design of digital products.